The effect of processing speed on verbal and visual memory of adults with a chronic acquired brain injury.

OBJECTIVE: Memory problems are among the most frequently reported cognitive complaints by individuals with an acquired brain injury (ABI). Processing speed and working memory deficits are often the result of ABI. These cognitive deficits significantly impact the acquisition and retention of information necessary for memory formation. This study investigated the influence of processing speed and working memory on immediate and delayed recall for verbal and visual memory, as well as overall memory recall in adults living with a chronic ABI. METHODS: Sixty-three participants living with a chronic ABI, who were at least one-year post-injury, were cognitively assessed with the CNS-Vital Signs (CNS-VS) computerized cognitive battery and Wechsler Test of Adult Reading. RESULTS: The CNS-VS Processing Speed significantly predicted delayed recall for verbal memory and overall memory performance. The CNS-VS Working Memory was not a significant predictor of memory recall. CONCLUSIONS: Processing speed deficits negatively impact memory in individuals with a chronic ABI. These findings suggest the memory recall of adults with a chronic ABI is associated with poor processing speed and poor acquisition of information. Therefore, cognitive rehabilitation that improves processing speed should be the focus for individuals with ABI to improve memory performance as well as impaired processing speed.

[Prevalence of subjective memory complaints: Population study in Spain]. / Prevalencia de quejas subjetivas de memoria: estudio poblacional en España.

INTRODUCTION: Subjective memory complaints (SMC) might be an early sign of further deterioration in cognitive functions. However, no population studies have been published covering all Spain to determine the SMC prevalence. The objective of the present study was to determine the SMC prevalence in the general population residing in Spain >50 years of age and also which related actions were done. MATERIALS AND METHODS: Interviews were conducted with a nationally representative sample >50 years of age using an online/computer assisted web interview (CAWI) questionnaire. The survey consisted of 34 items divided into two blocks. Presence of SMC was considered when in question 1 the subject answered that "Yes" he had some memory problem. RESULTS: Two thousand three hundred people (53.7% women; 23.9% ≥75 years old) were interviewed. 31% answered that they considered they had a memory problem (no differences between sexes, mean time with memory problems of 3.0 years). A higher prevalence of SMC was observed in ≥75 years old (44%). 90% did not include any specific foods in their diet for their memory problems, neither were taking any pharmaceuticals, diet supplements or nutritional supplements (92%). 78% of those interviewed with SMC have not consulted health professionals for their memory problems. CONCLUSIONS: SMC are considerably prevalent in our environment affecting almost a third of people ≥50 years of age. Most of the interviewees with SMC did not go to health professionals to manage their SMC.

Deconstructing spontaneous expressions of memory in dementia.

Dementia syndromes offer a unique opportunity to clarify some of the component processes of spontaneous expressions of memory proposed by the Barzykowski and Moulin model. By considering the model through the lens of memory disorders, I outline several important extensions to progress our understanding of these spontaneous cognitive phenomena.

Thinking about it: the impact of COVID-19-related stimuli on prospective memory.

Background: Since 2020, information regarding COVID-19 has been a constant presence in the news, in our conversations and thoughts. Continuous exposure to this type of stimuli could have an impact on cognitive processes essential for our everyday activities, such as prospective memory (PM). PM is the ability to remember to perform an intention at a specific point in the future, like remembering to take prescribed medicines at a specific time or to turn off the stove after cooking. Do COVID-related stimuli affect our ability to perform a PM task? Methods: To answer this question, we proposed a novel version of the classical paradigm used to investigate PM. Namely, this paradigm includes a baseline condition, in which an ongoing task is presented alone, and a PM condition in which the same task is proposed again together with a second (prospective) task. In this study, a short video clip was presented between the baseline and the PM condition. The video clip displayed either neutral, negative, or COVID-related content. Additionally, participants were asked to respond to two questionnaires and a series of questions regarding their well-being and experience with the pandemic. Namely, the DASS-21 scale (evaluating depression, anxiety, and stress), and the COVID-19-PTSD questionnaire (a questionnaire evaluating post-traumatic stress disorder symptoms related to the pandemic experience) were administered. Participants' performance and responses were analyzed using a linear mixed effect (LME) model approach, and correlation analyses were run to highlight possible correlations between participants' scores in the DASS-21, the COVID-19-PTSD, and the additional questions on their personal experience with the pandemic. Results: The LME models revealed significant effects of the displayed video on performance: in line with previous studies, the clip displaying standard negative contents led to impaired accuracy in the ongoing task in the PM condition, compared to the Baseline. In contrast, participants who saw the COVID-related clip showed improved accuracy in the ongoing task compared to the other participants, selectively in the block performed after the video clip was displayed (PM condition). Furthermore, the explanatory power of the LME model calculated on accuracy to the ongoing trials was enhanced by the inclusion of the scores in the anxiety subscale of the DASS-21, suggesting a detrimental role of anxiety. Altogether, these results indicate a different effect of the exposure to classical negative contents (associated with a cost in terms of accuracy in the ongoing task between the baseline and the PM condition) and the pandemic-related one, which was instead characterized by a higher accuracy to ongoing trials compared to the other video clips. This counterintuitive finding seems to suggest that COVID-related stimuli are processed as "acute stressors" rather than negative stimuli, thus inducing a state of increased alertness and responsivity.

Cognitive profile in functional disorders.

INTRODUCTION: Patients with functional disorders (FD) often experience cognitive problems such as forgetfulness and distractibility alongside physical symptoms that cannot be attributed to a known somatic disease. METHOD: Test scores of cognitive tests and psychiatric rating scales of 100 outpatients diagnosed with a functional disorder were compared to a control group (n = 300) of patients with other diagnoses and to test norms for the general population. RESULTS: Out of the 100 patients with functional disorders, 59 reported significant subjective cognitive symptoms. A moderate difference (d = 0.5-0.7) was found between the FD group mean and the population mean in processing speed tests, as well as in four psychiatric rating scales (depression, anxiety, phobias, somatisation) but there were no statistically significant differences in verbal and nonverbal reasoning or in logical memory. Somatisation and logical verbal memory scores were higher in the FD group compared to the control group. CONCLUSION: The findings of the study suggest that a decline in processing speed is a central feature in the cognitive profile of patients with functional disorders.

Individual differences in frequency and impact of daily memory lapses: results from a national lifespan sample.

BACKGROUND: Everyday memory problems are believed to increase with age, leading many researchers to focus on older ages when examining reports of memory lapses. However, real world memory lapses are ubiquitous across the adult lifespan, though less is known about the types of problems and their impacts at younger ages. The current study examined occurrence and impacts of memory lapses using daily diaries in a broad age range and whether characteristics of lapses varied across age, gender, or education level. METHODS: Using an 8-day daily diary protocol, 2,018 individuals (ages 25-91) provided reports of their experiences of two types of daily memory lapses (retrospective and prospective) as well as the impact those lapses had on their emotional and functional well-being that day. Using multilevel modeling, we examined the likelihood of reporting memory lapses and their impacts on daily life and whether these depended on age, gender, or education level. RESULTS: Participants reported lapses on approximately 40% of days; retrospective memory lapses were significantly more likely than prospective lapses. Older ages and higher education level were related to greater likelihood of reporting retrospective lapses. Women (compared to men) were more likely to report prospective memory lapses. Women also tended to report greater impacts of their memory lapses. Lower education levels were related to greater impacts of memory lapses compared to higher education levels. Interestingly, age was not related to impacts of lapses. DISCUSSION: Our results indicate that memory lapses are common across the lifespan and that those individuals more likely to report lapses are not necessarily those that experience the greatest impacts of those lapses on daily life. Additional work is needed to understand the daily experience of memory lapses and how they differentially affect individuals regardless of age, gender, and education. CONCLUSIONS: Memory lapses are an important aspect of daily life across the lifespan and require measurement in an individual's real-world environments. Better measurement of these experiences will allow the development of more sensitive measures of changes in cognitive functioning that may impact an individual's ability to live independently.

Family History of Dementia in Old-Age Participants with Subjective Memory Complaints Predicts Own Risk for Dementia in a Longitudinal Multi-Center Cohort Study.

BACKGROUND: Subjective memory complaints and family history of dementia are possibly intertwined risk factors for the own subsequent dementia risk and Alzheimer's disease. However, their interaction has rarely been studied. OBJECTIVE: To study the association between subjective memory complaints and family history of dementia with regard to the own subsequent risk of dementia. METHODS: Cross-sectional and longitudinal analyses over a follow-up period of up to 13 years were conducted in a population sample of participants without dementia at baseline (n = 3,256, mean age = 79.62 years), using group comparisons and Cox proportional hazards models. RESULTS: Cross-sectionally, participants with subjective memory complaints were significantly more likely to report family history of dementia. Longitudinally, family history of dementia (FH) was significantly associated with subsequent dementia in the subjective memory complaints (SMC) group, but not in those without SMC. A relative excess risk due to interaction analysis confirmed a significant FHxSMC-interaction. CONCLUSIONS: Family history of dementia was a predictor of incident dementia in those with SMC, which can serve as an additional, clinically relevant criterion to gauge the risk of dementia in older-aged subjects with SMC with and without objective cognitive impairment.

Experiencing daily negative aging stereotypes and real-life cognitive functioning in older adults: A diary study.

Older adults may be confronted with a variety of negative aging stereotypes (e.g., "forgetful," "physically frail," and "lonely") almost every day. While experimental studies have demonstrated the impact of negative aging stereotypes on older adults' cognitive performance, the relationship between multiple negative aging stereotype experiences and cognitive functioning in older people's daily lives is largely unknown. Using a 1-week daily diary study approach, the present studies examined the association between experiencing daily negative aging stereotypes and real-life cognitive functioning and the mediating role of daily negative affect. We also examined whether these associations differed in response to negative aging stereotype diversity, which refers to the breadth and evenness of negative aging stereotypes that older adults experience in 1 week. In Study 1 (n = 50), we explored the negative aging stereotypes that older adults often experience in their daily lives. These stereotypes can be seen as a measure of daily stereotype experiences. Then in Study 2, 100 older adults reported their everyday experiences of negative aging stereotypes, positive or negative affect, and cognitive failures for 1 week. The results showed that the more negative aging stereotype experiences older adults had in 1 day, the more cognitive failures occurred that day and that daily negative affect mediated this association. Further, the direct and indirect relationships between daily negative aging stereotype experiences and daily cognitive failures were significant in older adults with high negative aging stereotype diversity but not in those with low negative aging stereotype diversity. This study provides new insights for studies on aging stereotypes threat and offers theoretical guidance for future interventions for cognitive health in older adults and, in turn, contributes to promoting healthy aging in older adults. (PsycInfo Database Record (c) 2023 APA, all rights reserved).

Can a failure in the error-monitoring system explain unawareness of memory deficits in Alzheimer's disease?

Unawareness of memory deficits is an early manifestation in patients with Alzheimer's disease (AD), which often delays diagnosis. This intriguing behavior constitutes a form of anosognosia, whose neural mechanisms remain largely unknown. We hypothesized that anosognosia may depend on a critical synaptic failure in the error-monitoring system, which would prevent AD patients from being aware of their own memory impairment. To investigate, we measured event-related potentials (ERPs) evoked by erroneous responses during a word memory recognition task in two groups of amyloid positive individuals with only subjective memory complaints at study entry: those who progressed to AD within the five-year study period (PROG group), and those who remained cognitively normal (CTRL group). A significant reduction in the amplitude of the positivity error (Pe), an ERP related to error awareness, was observed in the PROG group at the time of AD diagnosis (vs study entry) in intra-group analysis, as well as when compared with the CTRL group in inter-group analysis, based on the last EEG acquisition for all subjects. Importantly, at the time of AD diagnosis, the PROG group exhibited clinical signs of anosognosia, overestimating their cognitive abilities, as evidenced by the discrepancy scores obtained from caregiver/informant vs participant reports on the cognitive subscale of the Healthy Aging Brain Care Monitor. To our knowledge, this is the first study to reveal the emergence of a failure in the error-monitoring system during a word memory recognition task at the early stages of AD. This finding, along with the decline of awareness for cognitive impairment observed in the PROG group, strongly suggests that a synaptic dysfunction in the error-monitoring system may be the critical neural mechanism at the origin of unawareness of deficits in AD.

A Simple Single Item Rated by an Interviewer Predicts Incident Dementia Over 15 Years.

Subjective memory is useful to detect cognitive deficits not apparent on objective tests. This research evaluates whether memory rated by an interviewer predicts incident dementia. Health and Retirement Study participants without cognitive impairment at baseline whose memory was rated by the interviewer were analyzed (N = 12,749). Worse interviewer-rated memory was associated with higher risk of incident dementia over 15 years (HR = 1.40, 95% CI = 1.27-1.54). The association was evident even among participants in the top quartile of objective memory performance (HR = 1.71, 95% CI = 1.26-2.32). Interviewer-rated memory may be a low-cost supplement to neuropsychological evaluation to predict dementia risk beyond self-reports and objective cognitive testing.

The impact of sensory impairments and eye diseases on cognitive function in elderly Chinese: The mediating effects of social participation.

Background: Sensory impairments and eye diseases increase the risk of cognitive decline, but little is known regarding their influence on cognitive function in elderly Chinese and the underlying mechanisms. We aimed to explore these influence mechanism from the social participation perspective. Methods: We selected 2876 respondents aged ≥60 from the China Health and Retirement Longitudinal Study (CHARLS) conducted in 2013, 2015, and 2018. We assessed sensory impairments and eye diseases based on self-reported responses, and evaluated its relation to social participation and cognitive function by fixed-effects regression and mediation effect analysis over a five-year period. Results: Respondents with visual impairment and cataracts had poor memory and mental status. Compared with near visual impairment, distance visual impairment was associated with a 1.7 times higher likelihood of cognitive decline (correlation coefficient (ß) = -0.051; 95% confidence interval (CI) = -0.065, -0.036)). Respondents with hearing impairment had bad memory (ß = -0.046; 95% CI = -0.065, -0.036), but not mental status. Social participation partially mediated the relationships of sensory impairments and cataracts with cognitive function in elderly Chinese. Individuals with sensory impairments affected by limited social participation reported a faster cognitive decline compared to those with eye disease. Conclusions: We found that sensory impairments and eye diseases were negatively associated with cognitive function. Furthermore, sensory impairments and cataracts influence cognitive function partly via social participation. Our results have important theoretical and practical implications and suggests that early interventions for sensory impairments and eye diseases may improve the cognitive function of elderly people.

Within-person associations between alcohol use and memory lapses among middle-aged and older adults.

INTRODUCTION: Alcohol use has been linked to impairment in both short- and long-term measures of objective memory. However, limited research has investigated the association between alcohol use and subjective memory in everyday life. The study purpose was to investigate within- and between-person associations between daily alcohol use and prospective (i.e., forgetting an intended task) and retrospective (i.e., forgetting something learned in the past) memory lapses among middle-aged and older adults. METHODS: Participants (n = 925; Mage = 55.2) were non-abstaining adults from the Midlife in the United States (MIDUS) study or the MIDUS Refresher who participated in an 8-day telephone diary asking about their daily experiences. RESULTS: Multilevel models revealed that within-individuals, heavier-than-usual alcohol use (i.e., having more drinks than one's daily average number of drinks) was associated with greater odds of reporting any memory lapses (odds ratio [OR] 1.06; 95% confidence interval [CI] 1.01, 1.12), while associations at the between-person level were nonsignificant (OR 1.07; 95% CI 0.99, 1.16). When assessing retrospective and prospective lapses separately, alcohol use was only associated with prospective lapses and only at the between-person level (OR 1.10; 95% CI 1.01, 1.19). Finally, alcohol use was unassociated with reported irritation or interference from memory lapses (p > 0.05). DISCUSSION AND CONCLUSIONS: Heavier-than-usual alcohol use may have acute effects on daily memory functioning. Future studies should assess how alcohol use relates to an individual's ability to meet daily cognitive demands, as these findings may have critical implications for harm reduction efforts targeting daily functioning among older adults.

Distinct neurocognitive fingerprints reflect differential associations with risky and impulsive behavior in a neurotypical sample.

Engagement in risky and impulsive behavior has long been associated with deficits in neurocognition. However, we have a limited understanding of how multiple subfunctions of neurocognition co-occur within individuals and which combinations of neurocognitive subfunctions are most relevant for risky and impulsive behavior. Using the neurotypical Nathan Kline Institute Rockland Sample (N = 673), we applied a Bayesian latent feature learning model-the Indian Buffet Process-to identify nuanced, individual-specific profiles of multiple neurocognitive subfunctions and examine their relationship to risky and impulsive behavior. All features were within a relatively normative range of neurocognition; however, there was subtle variability related to risky and impulsive behaviors. The relatively overall poorer neurocognition feature correlated with greater affective impulsivity and substance use patterns/problems. The poorer episodic memory and emotion feature correlated with greater trait externalizing and sensation-seeking. The poorer attention feature correlated with increased trait externalizing and negative urgency but decreased positive urgency and substance use. Finally, the average or mixed features negatively correlated with various risky and impulsive behaviors. Estimating nuanced patterns of co-occurring neurocognitive functions can inform our understanding of a continuum of risky and impulsive behaviors.

The impact of depressive symptomology, rumination and objective memory performance on subjective cognitive complaints.

INTRODUCTION: Cognitive impairment in depression can present as subjective or objective, but the intensity of the former is higher and is not correlated with the deficits measured in neuropsychological tests. We hypothesised that rumination would be associated with subjective cognitive impairment. METHODS: The study was performed through the online PsyToolkit platform. It included 168 healthy people and 93 people with depression. To examine memory, a recognition-type task was used with emotionally charged words as the stimulus. Depression symptoms were measured using the Beck Depression Inventory-II, subjective cognitive impairment with the Perceived Deficits Questionnaire-20, and intensity of rumination with the Polish Questionnaire of Rumination. RESULTS: MDD patients had significantly higher levels of depression symptoms, rumination, and subjective cognitive deficits than the control group. In the memory task, the MDD group had a higher error rate than the control group. In hierarchical regression analysis, depression and rumination were found to be significant predictors of subjective cognitive impairment, whereas objective memory performance was not. Exploratory analyses revealed that rumination mediates the association between depression and subjective cognitive complaints. CONCLUSION: Cognitive problems are common in depression and affect the quality of life. The results suggest that patients with depression have higher levels of rumination and subjective memory impairment, and that there is no direct link between subjective and objective cognitive decline. The findings may have implications for the development of effective treatment strategies for depression and cognitive impairment.

Design and baseline characteristics of the Cognitive and Aerobic Resilience for the Brain (CARB) study.

BACKGROUND: Treatments that delay progression of cognitive impairment in older adults are of great public health significance. This manuscript outlines the protocol, recruitment, baseline characteristics, and retention for a randomized controlled trial of cognitive and aerobic physical training to improve cognition in individuals with subjective cognitive dysfunction, the "Cognitive and Aerobic Resilience for the Brain" (CARB) study. METHODS: Community-dwelling, older adults with self-reported memory loss were randomly assigned to receive either computer-based cognitive training, aerobic physical training, combined cognitive and physical training, or education control. Treatment was delivered 2- to 3-times per week in 45- to 90-min sessions for 12 weeks by trained facilitators videoconferencing into subject's home. Outcome assessments of were taken at the baseline, immediately following training, and 3-months after training. RESULTS: 191 subjects were randomized into the trial (mean age, 75.5 years; 68% female; 20% non-white; mean education, 15.1 years; 30% with 1+ APOE e4 allele). The sample was generally obese, hypertensive, and many were diabetic, while cognition, self-reported mood, and activities of daily living were in the normal range. There was excellent retention throughout the trial. Interventions were completed at high rates, participants found the treatments acceptable and enjoyable, and outcome assessments were completed at high rates. CONCLUSIONS: This study was designed to determine the feasibility of recruiting, intervening, and documenting response to treatment in a population at risk for progressive cognitive decline. Older adults with self-reported memory loss were enrolled in high numbers and were well engaged with the intervention and outcome assessments.

Nonverbal memory tests revisited: Neuroanatomical correlates and differential influence of biasing cognitive functions.

The detection of right temporal lobe dysfunction with nonverbal memory tests has remained difficult in the past. Reasons for this might be the potential influence of other biasing cognitive functions such as executive functions or the verbalisability of nonverbal material. The aim of this study was to investigate three classic nonverbal memory tests by identifying their neuroanatomical correlates with lesion-symptom mapping (LSM) and by probing their independence from verbal encoding abilities and executive functions. In a cohort of 119 patients with first-time cerebrovascular accident, memory performance was assessed in the Nonverbal Learning and Memory Test for Routes (NLMTR), the Rey Complex Figure Test (RCFT), and the Visual Design Learning Test (VDLT). Calculating multivariate LSM, we identified crucial brain structures for these three nonverbal memory tests. Behavioural analyses were performed to assess the impact of executive functions and verbal encoding abilities with regression analyses and likelihood-ratio tests. LSM revealed for the RCFT mainly right-hemispheric frontal, insular, subcortical, and white matter structures and for the NLMTR right-hemispheric temporal (hippocampus), insular, subcortical, and white matter structures. The VDLT did not reach significance in LSM analyses. Behavioural results showed that amongst the three nonverbal memory tests the impact of executive functions was most pronounced for RCFT, and the impact of verbal encoding abilities was most important in VDLT. Likelihood-ratio tests confirmed that only for NLMTR did the goodness of fit not significantly improve by adding executive functions or verbal encoding abilities. These results suggest that amongst the three nonverbal memory tests the NLMTR, as a spatial navigation test, could serve as the most suitable marker of right-hemispheric temporal lobe functioning, with the right hippocampus being involved only in this test. In addition, the behavioural results propose that only NLMTR seems mostly unaffected by executive functions and verbal encoding abilities.

Prospective memory in early and established psychosis: An Indian perspective.

Individuals affected by psychosis often have deficits in several neurocognitive functions. Prospective memory (PM), the ability to remember to do things, is crucial for activities of daily living, social and occupational functioning, but very few studies have attempted to examine this domain of functioning in people with psychosis, particularly in India. A total of 71 patients with psychosis, (both early and established psychosis), and 140 age, gender and education-matched healthy controls were assessed using the Positive and Negative Symptom Scale, Hospital Anxiety and Depression scale, and Addenbrooke's Cognitive Examination. PM was assessed using the Cambridge Prospective Memory Test and the Prospective and Retrospective Memory Questionnaire (PRMQ). Group differences were evaluated using Mann-Whitney U-tests. Significantly greater cognitive deficits, higher anxiety and depression were evident in the psychosis group compared with controls. The psychosis group performed significantly poorer on both time- and event-based tests in CAMPROMPT than controls. These differences remained when controlling for age, education, general cognitive functioning and mood. The subjective measure of PM (PRMQ) did not differentiate the two groups. The PM performance of early and established psychosis patients was similar. Comparisons with cross-cultural data (PRMQ UK norms and CAMPROMPT and PRMQ Chinese data) revealed important differences in PM performance. Individuals with psychosis have significant deficits in both time- and event-based PM. CAMPROMPT emerged as a more sensitive PM measure compared with PRMQ. Results from cross-cultural comparisons underscore the need for cultural contextualization of assessments.

Rosa canina L. improves learning and memory-associated cognitive impairment by regulating glucose levels and reducing hippocampal insulin resistance in high-fat diet/streptozotocin-induced diabetic rats.

ETHNOPHARMACOLOGICAL RELEVANCE: Recent studies claim that Type-2 diabetes mellitus (T2DM) and Alzheimer's disease (AD) overlap in several common pathological pathways which from neuronal damage to impaired memory performance. It is known that the use of Rosa canina L. (R. canina) as medicine in folk medicine dates back to ancient times and is used in the treatment of nervous diseases in Persian medicine. However, the effect of R. canina on diabetes-related cognitive decline and memory impairment has not yet been studied. AIM OF THE STUDY: We evaluated the impact of T2DM on AD-like alterations and examined the molecular mechanism of a possible effect of R. canina on cognitive alterations in diabetic rats. MATERIALS&METHODS: R. canina ethanol extract was obtained by maceration method. This study was performed with male Sprague-Dawley rats fed with a high-fat diet (HFD) for 8 weeks, low-dose streptozotocin (STZ; 35 mg/kg IP) injection for 4 weeks, and R. canina (250 mg/kg; per oral) and metformin (400 mg/kg; per oral) administration for 4 weeks. The weight and blood glucose of rats were measured weekly. To evaluate glucose tolerance area under the curve (AUC) was calculated by performing an oral glucose tolerance test. Then the rats were subjected to behavioural tests, and their hippocampus and cortex tissues were obtained for biochemical and morphological analyses. RESULTS: R. canina could manage glucose responsiveness by reducing post-prandial blood glucose levels, preventing weight loss, and raising serum insulin levels in T2DM-induced rats. Behavioural tests showed that R. canina significantly improves diabetes-related cognitive decline in recall and long-term memory. Treatment with R. canina significantly reversed HFD/STZ-induced increases in insulin, amyloid-ß, amyloid precursor protein levels, and acetylcholinesterase activity in the prefrontal cortex and hippocampus. Furthermore, histological analyzes revealed the protection of R. canina against neuronal disruption in the cortical and hippocampal CA3 region caused by chronic hyperglycemia. CONCLUSION: Analyzed collectively, these results suggest that R. canina can correct T2DM-related cognitive decline may be attributed to insulin pathway modulation, prevention of amyloid deposition, and increased cholinergic transmission.

Younger and older adults' strategic use of associative memory and metacognitive control when learning foreign vocabulary words of varying importance.

Older adults often face memory deficits in binding unrelated items. However, in situations such as preparing for foreign travel, a learner may be highly motivated to learn the translations of important words (e.g., "money"). In the present study, younger and older adults studied Swahili-English word pairs and judged the importance of knowing each pair if they were traveling to a foreign country. Generally, we expected older adults to display a memory deficit but for both younger and older adults' memory to be driven by the subjective importance of the to-be-learned information. Both younger and older adults' memory was related to their subjective importance ratings, suggesting that both age groups were able to engage in goal-based value-directed remembering. With increased task experience, older adults appeared to utilize a strategic approach in their study of the translations by spending more time studying the items relative to younger adults. Thus, despite associative memory deficits in older age, both younger and older adults can selectively remember subjectively important information such that older adults can effectively remember new vocabulary that is subjectively important and related to their future goals. (PsycInfo Database Record (c) 2023 APA, all rights reserved).